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HYPERPERFUSION STATES LEADING TO POSTERIOR REVERSIBLE ENCEPHALOPATHY SYNDROME
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A group of neurologic disorders shares the common feature of hyperperfusion, probably related to endothelial dysfunction, playing a key role in pathogenesis. These seemingly diverse syndromes include hypertensive encephalopathy, eclampsia, postcarotid endarterectomy syndrome, and toxicity from calcineurin-inhibitor and other medications. Modern imaging techniques and experimental models suggest that vasogenic edema is typically the primary process leading to neurologic dysfunction; therefore, prompt recognition and management of this condition should allow for clinical recovery as long as superimposed hemorrhage or infarction has not occurred.
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The brain’s autoregulatory capability successfully maintains a fairly stable cerebral blood flow in adults despite alterations in systemic mean arterial pressure (MAP) ranging from 50 to 150 mmHg (Chap. 33). In patients with chronic hypertension, this cerebral autoregulation curve is shifted, resulting in autoregulation working over a much higher range of pressures (e.g., 70–175 mmHg). In these hypertensive patients, cerebral blood flow is kept steady at higher MAP, but a rapid lowering of pressure can lead to ischemia on the lower end of the autoregulatory curve, even at values typically thought of as normotensive. This autoregulatory phenomenon is achieved through both myogenic and neurogenic influences causing small arterioles to contract and dilate. When the systemic blood pressure exceeds the limits of this mechanism, breakthrough of autoregulation occurs, resulting in hyperperfusion via increased cerebral blood flow, capillary leakage into the interstitium, and resulting edema. The predilection of all of the hyperperfusion disorders to affect the posterior rather than anterior portions of the brain may be due to a lower threshold for autoregulatory breakthrough in the posterior circulation or a vasculopathy that is more common in these blood vessels.
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Although elevated or relatively elevated blood pressure is common in many of these disorders, some hyperperfusion states such as calcineurin-inhibitor toxicity occur with no apparent pressure rise. In these cases, vasogenic edema is likely due primarily to dysfunction of the capillary endothelium itself, leading to breakdown of the blood-brain barrier. It is useful to separate disorders of hyperperfusion into those caused primarily by increased pressure and those due mostly to endothelial dysfunction from a toxic or autoimmune etiology (Table 58-1). In reality, both of these pathophysiologic processes likely play some role in each of these disorders.
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The clinical presentation of all of the hyperperfusion syndromes is similar with prominent headaches, seizures, or focal neurologic deficits. Headaches have no specific characteristics, range from mild to severe, and may be accompanied by alterations in consciousness ranging from confusion to coma. Seizures may be present, and these can be of multiple types depending on the severity and location of the edema. Nonconvulsive seizures have been described in hyperperfusion states; therefore, a low threshold for obtaining an electroencephalogram (EEG) in these patients should be maintained. The typical focal deficit in hyperperfusion states is cortical visual loss, given the tendency of the process to involve the occipital lobes. However, any focal deficit can occur depending on the area affected, as evidenced by patients who, after carotid endarterectomy, exhibit neurologic dysfunction referable to the ipsilateral newly reperfused hemisphere. In conditions where increased cerebral blood flow plays a role, examination of the inpatient vital signs record will usually reveal a systemic blood pressure that is increased above the patient’s baseline. It appears as if the rapidity of rise, rather than the absolute value of pressure, is the most important risk factor.
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The diagnosis in all of these conditions is clinical. The symptoms of these disorders are common and nonspecific, so a long differential diagnosis should be entertained, including consideration of other causes of confusion, focal neurologic deficits, headache, and seizures. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has improved the ability of clinicians to diagnose hyperperfusion syndromes, although cases have been reported with normal imaging. Patients classically exhibit the high T2 signal of edema primarily in the posterior occipital lobes, not respecting any single vascular territory (Fig. 58-1). Diffusion-weighted images are typically normal, emphasizing the vasogenic rather than cytotoxic nature of this edema. Imaging with computed tomography (CT) is less sensitive but may show a pattern of patchy hypodensity in the involved territory. Previously this classic radiographic appearance had been termed reversible posterior leukoencephalopathy (RPLE). However, this term has fallen out of favor because none of its elements are completely accurate. The radiographic and clinical changes are not always reversible; the territory involved is not uniquely posterior; and gray matter may be affected as well, rather than purely white matter as the term “leukoencephalopathy” intimates. The now more commonly used radiologic term posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES) suffers from many of these same limitations. Vessel imaging may demonstrate narrowing of the cerebral vasculature, especially in the posterior circulation; whether this noninflammatory vasculopathy is a primary cause of the edema or occurs as a secondary phenomenon remains unclear. Other ancillary studies such as cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis often yield nonspecific results. It should be noted that many of the substances that have been implicated, such as cyclosporine, can cause this syndrome even at low doses or after years of treatment. Therefore, normal serum levels of these medications do not exclude them as inciting agents.
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In cases of hyperperfusion syndromes, treatment should commence urgently once the diagnosis is considered. Hypertension plays a key role commonly, and judicious lowering of the blood pressure with IV agents such as labetalol or nicardipine is advised along with continuous cardiac and blood pressure monitoring, often through an arterial line. It is reasonable to lower MAP by ~20% initially, as further lowering of the pressure may cause secondary ischemia and possibly infarction as pressure drops below the lower range of the patient’s autoregulatory capability. In cases where there is an identified cause of the syndrome, these etiologies should be treated promptly, including discontinuation of offending substances such as calcineurin inhibitors in toxic processes, treatment of immune-mediated disorders such as thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP), and prompt delivery of the fetus in eclampsia. Seizures must be identified and controlled, often necessitating continuous EEG monitoring. Anticonvulsants are effective when seizure activity is identified, but in the special case of eclampsia, there is evidence to support the use of magnesium sulfate for seizure control.
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POST-CARDIAC BYPASS BRAIN INJURY
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Central nervous system (CNS) injuries following open heart or coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) surgery are common and include acute encephalopathy, stroke, and a chronic syndrome of cognitive impairment. Hypoperfusion and embolic disease are frequently involved in the pathogenesis of these syndromes, although multiple mechanisms may be involved in these critically ill patients who are at risk for various metabolic and polypharmaceutical complications.
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The frequency of hypoxic injury secondary to inadequate blood flow intraoperatively has been markedly decreased by the use of modern surgical and anesthetic techniques. Despite these advances, some patients still experience neurologic complications from cerebral hypoperfusion or may suffer focal ischemia from carotid or focal intracranial stenoses in the setting of regional hypoperfusion. Postoperative infarcts in the border zones between vascular territories commonly are blamed on systemic hypotension, although these infarcts can also result from embolic disease (Fig. 58-2).
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Embolic disease is likely the predominant mechanism of cerebral injury during cardiac surgery as evidenced by diffusion-weighted MRI and intraoperative transcranial Doppler studies. It should be noted that some of the emboli that are found histologically in these patients are too small to be detected by standard imaging sequences; therefore, a negative MRI after surgery does not exclude the diagnosis of emboli-related complications. Thrombus in the heart itself as well as atheromas in the aortic arch can become dislodged during cardiac surgeries, releasing a shower of particulate matter into the cerebral circulation. Cross-clamping of the aorta, manipulation of the heart, extracorporeal circulation techniques (“bypass”), arrhythmias such as atrial fibrillation, and introduction of air through suctioning have all been implicated as potential sources of emboli. Histologic studies indicate that literally millions of tiny emboli may be released, even using modern surgical techniques.
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This shower of microemboli results in a number of clinical syndromes. Occasionally, a single large embolus leads to an isolated large-vessel stroke that presents with obvious clinical focal deficits. More commonly, the emboli released are multiple and smaller. When there is a high burden of these small emboli, an acute encephalopathy can occur postoperatively, presenting as either a hyperactive or hypoactive confusional state, the latter of which is frequently and incorrectly ascribed to depression or a sedative-induced delirium. When the burden of microemboli is lower, no acute syndrome is recognized, but the patient may suffer a chronic cognitive deficit. Cardiac surgery can be viewed, like delirium, as a “stress test for the brain.” Some patients with a low cerebral reserve due to underlying cerebrovascular disease or an early neurodegenerative process will develop a chronic, cognitive deficit, whereas others with higher reserves may remain asymptomatic despite a similar dose of microemboli. In this manner, cardiac surgery may serve to unmask the early manifestations of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease.
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Since modern techniques have successfully minimized hypoperfusion complications during these surgeries, much attention is now focused on reducing this inevitable shower of microemboli. Off-pump CABG surgeries have the advantages of reducing length of stay and perioperative complications; however, off-pump CABG probably does not preserve cognitive function compared with on-pump CABG. Filters placed in the aortic arch may have some promise in capturing these emboli, although convincing evidence is lacking. Development of successful endovascular operative approaches may provide a reasonable alternative to conventional CABG procedures, especially for patients at high risk of developing cognitive dysfunction after surgery due to advanced age, previous stroke, underlying neurodegenerative disorders, or severe atheromatous disease of the carotid arteries or aortic arch.
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POST-SOLID ORGAN TRANSPLANT BRAIN INJURY
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Patients who have undergone solid organ transplantation are at risk for neurologic injury in the postoperative period and for months to years thereafter. Neurologic consultants should view these patients as a special population at risk for both unique neurologic complications as well as for the usual disorders found in any critically ill inpatient.
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Immunosuppressive medications are administered in high doses to patients after solid organ transplant, and many of these compounds have well-described neurologic complications. In patients with headache, seizures, or focal neurologic deficits taking calcineurin inhibitors, the diagnosis of hyperperfusion syndrome should be considered, as discussed above. This neurotoxicity occurs mainly with cyclosporine and tacrolimus and can present even in the setting of normal serum drug levels. Treatment primarily involves lowering the drug dosage or discontinuing the drug. Sirolimus has very few recorded cases of neurotoxicity and may be a reasonable alternative for some patients. Other examples of immunosuppressive medications and their neurologic complications include OKT3-associated akinetic mutism and the leukoencephalopathy seen with methotrexate, especially when it is administered intrathecally or with concurrent radiotherapy. In any solid organ transplant patient with neurologic complaints, a careful examination of the medication list is required to search for these possible drug effects.
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Cerebrovascular complications of solid organ transplant are often first recognized in the immediate postoperative period. Border zone territory infarctions can occur, especially in the setting of systemic hypotension during cardiac transplant surgery. Embolic infarctions classically complicate cardiac transplantation, but all solid organ transplant procedures place patients at risk for systemic emboli. When cerebral embolization accompanies renal or liver transplantation surgery, a careful search for right-to-left shunting should include evaluation of the heart with agitated saline echocardiography (i.e., “bubble study”), as well as looking for intrapulmonary shunting. Renal and some cardiac transplant patients often have advanced atherosclerosis, providing yet another mechanism for stroke. Imaging with CT or MRI with diffusion is advised when cerebrovascular complications are suspected to confirm the diagnosis and to exclude intracerebral hemorrhage, which most often occurs in the setting of coagulopathy secondary to liver failure or after cardiac bypass procedures.
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Given that patients with solid organ transplants are chronically immunosuppressed, infections are a common concern. In any transplant patient with new CNS signs or symptoms such as seizure, confusion, or focal deficit, the diagnosis of a CNS infection should be considered and evaluated through imaging (usually MRI) and possibly lumbar puncture. The most common pathogens responsible for CNS infections in these patients vary based on time since transplant. In the first month posttransplant, common pathogens include the usual bacterial organisms associated with surgical procedures and indwelling catheters. Starting in the second month posttransplant, opportunistic infections of the CNS become more common, including Nocardia and Toxoplasma species as well as fungal infections such as aspergillosis. Viral infections that can affect the brain of the immunosuppressed patient, such as herpes simplex virus, cytomegalovirus, human herpesvirus type 6 (HHV-6), and varicella, also become more common after the first month posttransplant. After 6 months posttransplant, immunosuppressed patients still remain at risk for these opportunistic bacterial, fungal, and viral infections but can also suffer late CNS infectious complications such as progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) associated with JC virus and Epstein-Barr virus–driven clonal expansions of B cells resulting in posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorder or CNS lymphoma.